This paper scopes out the broader challenges to space exploration security that have galvanised as a result of space privatisation and fledgling space-based public-private partnerships. It uses complex systems analysis to define an Earth-Moon loop system and articulate security threats that range from terrorism, cyber terrorism, international war and intra-national war, to conflict potentials on the Moon and in space.

The paper also underscores the critical connections between cyberspace and 'new space' exploration threat formation, the stakeholders involved, and the structural earthbound systems factors that can influence space exploration security, such as the computer revolution, recession, globalisation and climate change.