This report explores the concept of stack thinking, which reframes how complex systems can be organised. Borrowed from computing, a stack is a layered architecture in which each layer performs a distinct function and interacts with others through defined interfaces. The key shift is conceptual. Instead of organising around departments, systems are organised around functions and layers. Each layer can evolve independently, while still contributing to a coherent whole.

Applied to government, stack thinking suggests a different model of institutional design. Core capabilities such as identity, payments, data management, and regulation can be developed as shared layers. Services can assemble these layers as needed, rather than building everything from scratch. Human expertise remains central but is supported by modular digital and organisational components. A small set of standardised elements can be recombined in many ways, much like biological building blocks.

This approach also introduces the idea of composability. Institutions do not just operate components; they assemble and reassemble them to meet specific needs. This becomes a core capability in its own right.